The Dokan Dam and the Transformation of a Landscape
The Dokan Dam project (1954–1959) represents one of the most significant hydraulic interventions in Iraqi Kurdistan. Constructed under King Faisal II's development agenda, the dam was motivated by multiple objectives: harnessing the hydro-electric potential of the Lower Zab river, expanding irrigation capacity, and preventing catastrophic flooding events such as the 1954 disaster that had devastated the region.
By 1959, the dam's closure created a vast artificial reservoir with a storage capacity of 6.8 billion cubic metres, permanently transforming the hydrology and settlement patterns of the Rania Plain. The lake submerged a substantial portion of fertile agricultural land that had been continuously inhabited since prehistoric times.
View from the mountains above Dokan towards the dam (February 2012).
The construction of the Dokan Dam was among the early cases that contributed to the spread of archaeological salvage protocols throughout Southwest Asia. Yet, despite initial rescue efforts, much of the region's cultural heritage—both archaeological and ethnographic—remained unexplored before the waters rose.
First-Phase Salvage (1955–1960)
Prior to flooding, Iraqi archaeologists conducted surveys and limited excavations across the threatened area (1955–1959), joined by a Danish expedition at Tell Shemshara in 1957. These efforts documented dozens of sites and recovered exceptional finds, including the cuneiform archive of Kuwari. However, the majority of the region's archaeological heritage was never systematically investigated before disappearing beneath the lake.
Topographic map of Tell Basmusian (redrawn from Abu as-Soof 1970: pl. II).
For more details on the Danish and Iraqi excavations, see our pages on Tell Shemshara and Project Overview.
The Oscillating Lake
Lake Dokan is not a static body of water. Its level fluctuates dramatically throughout the year, responding to seasonal precipitation, snowmelt from the Zagros mountains, and controlled water release for irrigation and power generation.
The annual oscillation can reach 20–25 metres—a variation that defines two distinct zones within the reservoir:
The permanent core: the deeper central area, roughly below the 480 m contour, which remains submerged year-round. Sites within this zone are now embedded in accumulated sediments. By 2014, sedimentation had reduced the reservoir's original storage capacity by 28%.
The flood-risk (or drawdown) zone: the area between approximately 480 m and 510 m elevation, which is periodically exposed during autumn and early winter when water levels are at their lowest. It is within this zone that archaeological sites endure repeated cycles of submersion and exposure.
Map of identified sites. The flood-risk area is shown in orange, the permanent core in blue (basemap © GoogleEarth).
Historical records show that the lake reached its maximum elevation of 510.77 m in April 1974, and its minimum of 441.91 m in December 1988—an exceptional low point. More typical minimum levels range between 485 and 490 m.
This constant movement of water creates severe and cumulative damage to archaeological sites caught within the flood-risk zone.
Displaced Communities
The formation of Lake Dokan did not only submerge ancient heritage—it also uprooted living communities. Recent research has begun to document the scale of this displacement for the first time.
Analysis of aerial photographs taken in 1952 by Hunting Aerosurveys, compared with later imagery, reveals that 35 villages were submerged by the rising waters, while an additional 10 villages were abandoned despite never being flooded—evacuated by administrative decree as a precautionary measure.
Map of villages in the area (basemap © GoogleEarth).
Before the dam's construction, the study area hosted an estimated population of 9,200 to 18,400 inhabitants, distributed across 135 villages. The settlement pattern reflected traditional Kurdish socio-spatial organisation: predominantly small villages accommodating extended family networks, connected through kinship ties, seasonal movement, and shared pastoral or agricultural resources.
The post-dam landscape tells a different story. New "regimented villages" emerged—planned settlements that replaced the organic, dispersed pattern of the past. The town of Chwarqurna, for instance, developed as a centralised resettlement hub. In total, 20 new settlements were established after the dam's construction, but the overall number of villages dropped from 135 to 108.
This process has been described as a form of "cultural de-rooting": a deliberate disruption that severed deep-seated connections between communities and their ancestral landscapes. The flooding of densely populated villages entailed not merely the loss of homes, but what scholars have called the "submerging of culture"—the obliteration of an intricate cultural fabric embedded in place.
Damage to Archaeological Sites
The repeated cycle of submersion and exposure inflicts cumulative and often catastrophic damage to archaeological sites within the flood-risk zone. Fieldwork conducted since 2012 has allowed researchers to document these processes in detail, using a combination of historical aerial photographs (the 1952 Hunting survey), satellite imagery, and ground-based topographic survey.
Tell Shemshara: A Case Study in Destruction
Tell Shemshara offers the clearest evidence of flood damage because it is the only site in the region for which detailed pre-flood documentation exists. The Danish expedition produced a contour map of the main mound in 1957, allowing direct comparison with surveys conducted in 2012–2013.
The results are stark. The high northern summit of the Main Hill, where the Danish team concentrated their excavations, has lost approximately 4 metres in elevation. By overlaying the 1957 contours onto the modern survey, researchers calculated that the site has lost roughly 30,000 cubic metres of soil—equivalent to removing a layer nearly two metres thick across the entire mound.
Much of this lost material was natural hillside into which ancient settlements were terraced, but substantial portions of the occupational sequence have also been flushed into the lake. Stone foundations of the Level V palace—where the Archive of Kuwari was discovered—now lie exposed and denuded on the eroded slopes, their protective overburden entirely washed away.
Yet the situation is not uniformly catastrophic. Paradoxically, the erosion has also revealed previously unknown architectural features on the eastern slope, where passing water stripped away debris to expose outlines of earlier walls. Destruction and discovery proceed hand in hand.
Map showing the volume loss at Tell Shemshara between the 1970 survey (Mortensen 1970) and the project's 2015 survey.
Processes of Destruction
The damage manifests through several interconnected processes:
Erosion and down-cutting: As water levels rise and fall, waves strip away the outer layers of ancient mounds. Softer deposits are loosened and washed downhill, destabilising structures above. In some cases, entire vertical sections collapse when underlying sediments are flushed out.
Flattening: Over time, the lake gradually levels protruding features. What were once sharply defined tells are slowly reduced to gentle, ramping bumps. The scars of old excavation trenches, for instance, are progressively smoothed into barely perceptible undulations.
Redeposition: Eroded material does not simply disappear—it is redistributed. Debris accumulates in gullies, old trenches, and lower areas, while beaches of washed potsherds form along the edges of sites. This process removes artefacts from their original context and can eventually bury sites under new, non-anthropogenic sediments.
Other Sites in the Flood-Risk Zone
Comparison of the 1952 Hunting aerial photographs with modern satellite imagery and field survey reveals similar patterns of destruction across multiple sites:
Dugirdkan: This multi-mound site was flooded almost every year between 1980 and 1999—a total of 2,458 flood days. The main mound (Dugirdkan I) has lost approximately 4 metres of elevation since the 1950s. Calculations suggest the site lost roughly 12,800 cubic metres of archaeological deposits during those two decades alone.
Gird Mamand: Here the effects of flattening are dramatically visible. A once-prominent mound has been reduced to near-level with its surrounding fields, its area shrinking by at least 15–20%. A northwestern hill visible in the 1952 photographs has vanished entirely, leaving only sporadic potsherds among modern cultivation.
Bab-w-Kur South: This low-contour site shows extreme wash erosion rather than down-cutting. Comparison of historical and modern imagery reveals mud-brick walls now visible at the surface that were buried in the 1950s—indicating significant volume loss. The site appears to be slowly "swallowed whole" by the lake, with debris gradually embedded in newly deposited sediments.
Araban: A flat, single-period site heavily affected by down-cutting on its western edge. Excavations revealed that constant waterlogging has begun to dissolve architectural traces from within—geochemical processes of filtration and subterranean soil movement are internally eroding the site's core.
Sites by Category
Archaeological sites within the Dokan Dam reservoir can be classified according to their relationship with the fluctuating water levels:
Permanently Submerged Sites
These sites lie within the permanent core of the lake and have remained underwater since 1959 or shortly thereafter. They were last mapped by the 1950s Iraqi mission and have never been revisited since, as they lie within the permanent core of the reservoir. They are now embedded in accumulated sediments.
Tell ed-Dêm: Tell ed-Dêm lies in the permanent core of Lake Dokan and has been completely submerged since the dam's completion. Excavated by an Iraqi team in the late 1950s, its precise location can now only be estimated through geo-rectified historical aerial imagery captured before the flood. The site, covering approximately 1.2 hectares, remains inaccessible and embedded in lake sediments.
Other permanently submerged sites include Buatan and Mullah Umar.
Cyclically Exposed Sites (Flood-Risk Zone)
These sites occupy elevations between approximately 480 m and 500 m. They are submerged during spring and summer when the lake is at its highest, and re-emerge in autumn and winter as water levels drop. This repeated cycle of wetting and drying causes the most severe cumulative damage. These are the sites that our project prioritises for investigation, as they face the greatest threat from erosion.
Tell Shemshara: Tell Shemshara is the best-documented site on the Rania Plain. Excavated by Danish and Iraqi teams in 1957, it yielded an important cuneiform archive and a detailed topographic map of the main mound. Comparison between the 1957 survey and modern mapping reveals a dramatic loss of approximately 30,000 cubic metres of soil. Although the summit remains above the maximum flood level, the Shemshara hills are cyclically isolated by rising waters, and their slopes remain exposed to severe wave erosion throughout each flooding season.
Tell Basmusian: Tell Basmusian is one of the largest sites in the region, covering approximately 5.6 hectares. Excavated by an Iraqi team in 1956, it was once a mighty citadel mound. Today it survives as a heavily eroded island throughout most of the year, usually accessible only by boat. During exceptionally high water levels the site becomes completely submerged, while in periods of drought—such as December 2023 and September–November 2025—it can be reached by car. The continuous cycle of flooding and exposure has reduced the site to a shadow of its former self.
Baiz Agha: Baiz Agha was not recorded by the 1955 Iraqi survey, but has emerged as a significant site in recent years. Stone foundations of substantial structures—rooms with thick walls flanking a central courtyard—are visible on the surface. Ceramics indicate occupation during the Late Bronze Age (mid-2nd millennium BCE) and the Middle Assyrian period making it the first site in the region with clear Late Bronze Age documentation. Late Assyrian ceramics have been found at the nearby site of Kendi Khestan. In 2015 the site appeared as an island; by December 2023 it had become a peninsula. During the exceptionally low water levels of September–November 2025, a second, smaller site called Kandi Khshtan emerged nearby on the same peninsula.
Some cyclically exposed sites appear as small islands when water levels are moderately low: Kamam, Qarashina, Haiz, and Pris. Others become sporadically accessible by car during periods of exceptional drought: Qurallu and Kundu. All require urgent monitoring and, where feasible, salvage excavation during the brief windows when they are accessible.
Sites Above the Flood Line
A number of sites in the Rania Plain lie above the maximum recorded lake level (c. 511 m) and have never been submerged. These include both large tells and smaller, often single-period settlements on elevated terrain: Qalat Raniyah, Saidawa, Qala, Qara Tepe, and Dolla Rash. While these sites are not threatened by complete submersion, they are not immune to damage: they remain vulnerable to agricultural expansion, urban development, and looting.
The site of Kamarian, with the modern village abandoned due to the dam's construction, as it appears on the 1952 Hunting aerial photograph.
Drone photograph of Tell Basmusian, which usually appears as an island accessible only by boat. In September 2025, however, exceptionally low water levels made it accessible by car.
Drone photograph of Baiz Agha and Kandi Khshtan, which are normally submerged but exceptionally emerged as a peninsula in December 2023 and September–November 2025.
Drone photograph of Tell Shemshara (in the foreground) towards Lake Dokan and the Darband Pass.
Second-Phase Heritage Salvage
The concept of "second-phase salvage" acknowledges that the work of heritage protection did not—and could not—end when the floodwaters rose in 1959. For sites within dam reservoirs, the threat is ongoing: each year brings new cycles of erosion, new losses, and occasionally, new opportunities.
Fieldwork mishaps during the 2025 survey.
The Pisa Archaeological Project represents precisely this kind of sustained, long-term response. Since 2012, the project has pursued several interconnected objectives:
Monitoring: Systematic documentation of flood damage through repeated survey, allowing researchers to track changes over time and identify sites at greatest risk.
Salvage excavation: Targeted excavation of features exposed by erosion before they are lost entirely. At Tell Shemshara, for example, the project re-excavated and fully documented the Level V palace—the building where the Archive of Kuwari was found—producing the first complete architectural plan of this important structure.
Survey and discovery: Exploiting periods of low water to visit and record sites that are normally inaccessible. The December 2023 survey, conducted during exceptionally low lake levels, documented 11 sites—including 4 that had not been visited since the 1950s and 4 that were previously unrecorded.
Contextualising displaced finds: Working with local communities to document and study antiquities recovered by farmers and fishermen from eroding sites—objects that would otherwise be lost to science.
Community engagement: Collaborating with the Directorates of Antiquities in Sulaymania and Raparin, and initiating partnerships with local institutions such as Raparin University's "Raparin Renaissance" project, which documents oral histories of displaced communities.
This work is not merely reactive. By understanding the processes of destruction, researchers can better predict which sites face the most urgent threats—and direct limited resources where they can have the greatest impact.
A Regional Challenge
The Dokan Dam is not an isolated case. Across Southwest Asia, from Turkey to Iran to Syria, hundreds of dams have transformed river valleys, submerging archaeological landscapes that span millennia of human history.
Map of major dams in the Middle East. Minor rivers omitted for clarity (data © FAO-AQUASTAT).
The Upper Tigris (Turkey): The Ilısu Dam project (1999–2018) flooded over 300 archaeological sites, including the ancient town of Hasankeyf. Despite 18 years of salvage excavations—one of the largest rescue archaeology programmes ever undertaken—much was lost. Some monuments, like the Er Rizk Mosque, were physically relocated to higher ground; most sites simply disappeared beneath the waters.
The Middle Euphrates (Syria): The Tishreen Dam, completed in 1999, created a reservoir that submerged dozens of sites in the cradle of early urban civilisation. Today, ongoing drought and conflict have caused dramatic fluctuations in water levels, periodically exposing long-submerged sites to new cycles of erosion—and to looting.
Western Iran: Dams along the tributaries of the Tigris and in the Zagros foothills have flooded valleys with rich archaeological heritage, often with minimal prior documentation.
These cases underscore a fundamental truth: dam construction transforms landscapes irreversibly, and the loss of cultural heritage is rarely adequately mitigated. International frameworks—such as the European Convention for the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage and the ICOMOS Charter—call for comprehensive surveys, inventories, and salvage excavations before any major hydraulic project proceeds. In practice, such measures are frequently underfunded, rushed, or simply not implemented.
The ongoing work in the Dokan Dam zone demonstrates that heritage salvage need not end when the dam is complete. Even decades after flooding, systematic monitoring, targeted excavation, and sustained research can recover knowledge and protect what remains. But time is not unlimited. With each passing year, more is lost—and what survives grows ever more fragile.